Psychodynamic (examined at the end of year 13)
“Psycho” meaning mind and “dynamic” suggesting movement. Central to Freud’s theory was psychic energy that motivates us and creates conflicts. Like energy in the physical world, psychic energy cannot be created or destroyed, but moves from one form to another for example from love to hate, or from thinking to acting. Psychodynamic therefore refers to this constant movement of psychic energy within the mind and how this influences our thoughts and behaviours.
Freud was the founding father and concentrated largely on the unconscious forces underlying our personality. Freud separated the mind into two distinct domains, the conscious mind that we are aware of and the unconscious that is unknown to us. The conscious part he likened to the tip of an iceberg with the unconscious forming the larger part beneath the surface of conscious awareness. According to Freud, the unconscious, holding our deepest, darkest thoughts and desires has a much greater impact on our personality and behaviour than the conscious mind.
Personality
The structure of personality that you all know and love, illustrates this conscious/unconscious dichotomy. When considering personality, try to remember how it ties in with the psychosexual stages that follow.
Id
The id motivates you to seek pleasure whilst avoiding pain and do so at whatever cost to others; it is entirely selfish. The Id operates on what Freud called the Pleasure Principle and is present at birth. The Id in turn is driven by two other instinctive drives:
The Id therefore drives us to seek instant gratification and is happy for us to destroy anything that gets in our way. If a person we love is standing in the way of pleasure, we can according to Freud, unconsciously love that person whilst hating them at the same time. Whereas such conflicting emotions would be questioned by the conscious mind they are tolerated by the unconscious Id!
“Psycho” meaning mind and “dynamic” suggesting movement. Central to Freud’s theory was psychic energy that motivates us and creates conflicts. Like energy in the physical world, psychic energy cannot be created or destroyed, but moves from one form to another for example from love to hate, or from thinking to acting. Psychodynamic therefore refers to this constant movement of psychic energy within the mind and how this influences our thoughts and behaviours.
Freud was the founding father and concentrated largely on the unconscious forces underlying our personality. Freud separated the mind into two distinct domains, the conscious mind that we are aware of and the unconscious that is unknown to us. The conscious part he likened to the tip of an iceberg with the unconscious forming the larger part beneath the surface of conscious awareness. According to Freud, the unconscious, holding our deepest, darkest thoughts and desires has a much greater impact on our personality and behaviour than the conscious mind.
Personality
The structure of personality that you all know and love, illustrates this conscious/unconscious dichotomy. When considering personality, try to remember how it ties in with the psychosexual stages that follow.
Id
The id motivates you to seek pleasure whilst avoiding pain and do so at whatever cost to others; it is entirely selfish. The Id operates on what Freud called the Pleasure Principle and is present at birth. The Id in turn is driven by two other instinctive drives:
- Eros or life instinct: which gets its energy from the libido. Eros drives us to behave in life preserving and life enhancing ways, to avoid danger, keep warm and well fed and to reproduce.
- Thanatos: or death instinct which will cause us to attack anyone that gets in the way of satisfying the libido. Thanatos however can be destructive when turned inwards.
The Id therefore drives us to seek instant gratification and is happy for us to destroy anything that gets in our way. If a person we love is standing in the way of pleasure, we can according to Freud, unconsciously love that person whilst hating them at the same time. Whereas such conflicting emotions would be questioned by the conscious mind they are tolerated by the unconscious Id!
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For those interested:
Thanatos is the Greek equivalent of the Roman God Mors (from which we derive words like mortuary and the French for dead ‘mort.’ In Greek myth he is the brother of Hypnos (God of sleep) who seeks to imitate his older brother. Helios (the God of the Sun) never shines on Thanatos. Eros of course was the Greek God of love, whose statue stands in Picadilly Circus. |
Ego
The Ego develops to resolve the conflict arising from potty training during the anal stage of development. The Ego represents what the conscious mind believes is the real ‘us.’ Operating on the reality principle, the Ego is measured and logical and seeks to maintain balance in a real world, allowing the Id some satisfaction but laying down boundaries which it cannot cross. If the Ego feels that the conscious mind id being threatened by unpleasant material it deploys its armoury of defence mechanisms that we’ll look at later.
Superego
The ego develops during the phallic stage as a resolution to the Oedipus complex or Elektra conflict. The Superego operates on the morality principle and motivates us to behave in a socially responsible and acceptable manner.
Freud subdivided the Superego into two parts:
Ego-ideal which tells us how we should behave and
Conscience which nags us when we don’t!
The Superego is often underestimated in its influence on personality, as, like the Id, it is mostly unconscious.
The Ego develops to resolve the conflict arising from potty training during the anal stage of development. The Ego represents what the conscious mind believes is the real ‘us.’ Operating on the reality principle, the Ego is measured and logical and seeks to maintain balance in a real world, allowing the Id some satisfaction but laying down boundaries which it cannot cross. If the Ego feels that the conscious mind id being threatened by unpleasant material it deploys its armoury of defence mechanisms that we’ll look at later.
Superego
The ego develops during the phallic stage as a resolution to the Oedipus complex or Elektra conflict. The Superego operates on the morality principle and motivates us to behave in a socially responsible and acceptable manner.
Freud subdivided the Superego into two parts:
Ego-ideal which tells us how we should behave and
Conscience which nags us when we don’t!
The Superego is often underestimated in its influence on personality, as, like the Id, it is mostly unconscious.
Healthy and unhealthy personalities
Freud believed that a strong Ego was essential to psychological health. Psychological well-being depends on minimising conflict and satisfying the needs of the different parts of personality. If the Id gains the upper hand we are likely to become selfish, antisocial perhaps even psychopathic. If the Superego comes out on top the person will be straight-laced, bossy, worried and moralistic.
On occasions a weak Ego can result in a see-sawing effect with personality alternating between different states. Freud’s explanation for manic-depression was a swinging between the Id (causing mania) and then overcompensation by the Ego causing depression.
Ego defence mechanisms
Some of these will be familiar, such as repression, whereas others will be new, for example reaction formation. However, these are very useful in attempting to explain a person’s behaviour. All ego defence mechanisms are operations of the unconscious mind and as a result the real reasons underlying your behaviour that results is not known.
Repression
Thoughts or desires that are likely to be disturbing or cause psychological harm are locked away in the unconscious mind. However, though hidden from conscious thought they can still cause psychological disturbance and influence your actions.
Displacement
Re-directing an emotion or action towards a substitute. Classic example would be anger towards your boss displaced onto the dog! Displacement usually involves anger!
Note: a particularly useful form of displacement for these questions would be displacement of anger inwards or against yourself. Freud considered this to be an explanation of depression, but could also be used to explain any form of self-abuse such as alcohol, drugs or perhaps even multiple piercing!
Projection
Seeing your own unpleasant or socially unacceptable characteristics in others. An example would be animal rights activists who complain about other people’s aggression towards animals when they use violent methods themselves.
Reaction formation
Taking an outward stance that is opposite to the unacceptable desire you have. Obvious examples would b young boys saying they hate a girl when secretly they fancy her, or men with homosexual desires taking an overly homophobic stance.
Denial
One that you’re all familiar with. The person simply denies the existence of the problem. Topical example, Charles Kennedy denying his drink problem.
Sublimation
Different to all the others in that the person does something positive with the desire. The person may take the aggression and channel it into running, boxing, management etc. In fact Freud believed that all our positive attributes were sublimations of our sexual desires and drives!
Regression
Faced with stress the person reverts to an earlier, usually childhood, stage of development. For example they may suck their thumbs, wet the bed, throw tantrums etc.
Regression brings me nicely to the next useful aspect of Freud’s theory, and again an aspect that you’re all familiar with, the psychosexual stages.
The psychosexual stages of development
Freud believed that as we developed our sexual or life energy (libido) focused on different parts of the body. Each stage would have an optimal level of satisfaction, too much or too little satisfaction in each stage would lead to fixations and these would shape later personality. The stages and fixations are particularly useful for explaining personality types.
Oral (0-2ish)
The child is born into this stage and satisfaction centres on the mouth, eating and sucking. Too little oral stimulation (if I can say that) results in a person that is uncaring and treats people like objects. In later life they may develop behaviours such as smoking, drinking, nail-biting and over-eating.
Too much oral stimulation results in a personality that is gullible and overly enthusiastic.
Anal (2-4ish)
Pleasure is now centred on the anus, particularly defecation and the pleasure of having a good dump! The Ego develops in order to resolve conflict between the Id (which wants instant pleasure and pooing at will) and parents who require restraint!
Overly strict potty training or too little anal pleasure, (I definitely can’t say that!), results in an anally retentive personality. The person grows up to be obsessively tidy and organised.
Relaxed potty training (too much of that pleasure mentioned above) and the person develops into an anal expulsive, which sounds messy and is! The person may also be over generous and for some reason sadistic!
Phallic (4-6ish)
Pleasure is now centred on the penis (boys) and clitoris (girls). It’s during the Phallic stage that the child starts to develop desires for the opposite sex parent and as a result fear of the same sex parent finding out.
The boys’ desire for the mother results in him wanting to take the place of the father (Oedipus complex). This causes anxiety since they believe if the father discovers their desire he will castrate them.
A similar process (Elektra conflict) occurs in girls, with them blaming their mother for removing their penis, and desiring their father since he has one! Both sexes eventually resolve the situation by identifying with the same sex parent and adopting their moral values and so the Superego is born! However, since boys have more to lose (their willy) their anxiety is greater and so they develop a stronger conscience. Girls on the other hand only lose their penis envy when they have children themselves.
The Oedipal feelings are repressed until adolescence when they become displaced onto members of the opposite sex.
Latency (6ish to puberty)
A quiet period almost dormant period during which time the sexes go their separate ways and the child learns appropriate social and gender specific rules and patterns of behaviour.
Genital (puberty onwards)
Libido is now directed towards the genitals and sexual maturity begins. According to Freud, in a few cases, the defence mechanisms prevent some people from ever reaching this stage. In the highly unlikely event of a question 8 or 9 on anal or oral sex, or on masturbation (can’t really see it somehow), then this would be ideal because Freud saw these as immature forms of sex in those who had never reached full sexual maturity.
Freud believed that a strong Ego was essential to psychological health. Psychological well-being depends on minimising conflict and satisfying the needs of the different parts of personality. If the Id gains the upper hand we are likely to become selfish, antisocial perhaps even psychopathic. If the Superego comes out on top the person will be straight-laced, bossy, worried and moralistic.
On occasions a weak Ego can result in a see-sawing effect with personality alternating between different states. Freud’s explanation for manic-depression was a swinging between the Id (causing mania) and then overcompensation by the Ego causing depression.
Ego defence mechanisms
Some of these will be familiar, such as repression, whereas others will be new, for example reaction formation. However, these are very useful in attempting to explain a person’s behaviour. All ego defence mechanisms are operations of the unconscious mind and as a result the real reasons underlying your behaviour that results is not known.
Repression
Thoughts or desires that are likely to be disturbing or cause psychological harm are locked away in the unconscious mind. However, though hidden from conscious thought they can still cause psychological disturbance and influence your actions.
Displacement
Re-directing an emotion or action towards a substitute. Classic example would be anger towards your boss displaced onto the dog! Displacement usually involves anger!
Note: a particularly useful form of displacement for these questions would be displacement of anger inwards or against yourself. Freud considered this to be an explanation of depression, but could also be used to explain any form of self-abuse such as alcohol, drugs or perhaps even multiple piercing!
Projection
Seeing your own unpleasant or socially unacceptable characteristics in others. An example would be animal rights activists who complain about other people’s aggression towards animals when they use violent methods themselves.
Reaction formation
Taking an outward stance that is opposite to the unacceptable desire you have. Obvious examples would b young boys saying they hate a girl when secretly they fancy her, or men with homosexual desires taking an overly homophobic stance.
Denial
One that you’re all familiar with. The person simply denies the existence of the problem. Topical example, Charles Kennedy denying his drink problem.
Sublimation
Different to all the others in that the person does something positive with the desire. The person may take the aggression and channel it into running, boxing, management etc. In fact Freud believed that all our positive attributes were sublimations of our sexual desires and drives!
Regression
Faced with stress the person reverts to an earlier, usually childhood, stage of development. For example they may suck their thumbs, wet the bed, throw tantrums etc.
Regression brings me nicely to the next useful aspect of Freud’s theory, and again an aspect that you’re all familiar with, the psychosexual stages.
The psychosexual stages of development
Freud believed that as we developed our sexual or life energy (libido) focused on different parts of the body. Each stage would have an optimal level of satisfaction, too much or too little satisfaction in each stage would lead to fixations and these would shape later personality. The stages and fixations are particularly useful for explaining personality types.
Oral (0-2ish)
The child is born into this stage and satisfaction centres on the mouth, eating and sucking. Too little oral stimulation (if I can say that) results in a person that is uncaring and treats people like objects. In later life they may develop behaviours such as smoking, drinking, nail-biting and over-eating.
Too much oral stimulation results in a personality that is gullible and overly enthusiastic.
Anal (2-4ish)
Pleasure is now centred on the anus, particularly defecation and the pleasure of having a good dump! The Ego develops in order to resolve conflict between the Id (which wants instant pleasure and pooing at will) and parents who require restraint!
Overly strict potty training or too little anal pleasure, (I definitely can’t say that!), results in an anally retentive personality. The person grows up to be obsessively tidy and organised.
Relaxed potty training (too much of that pleasure mentioned above) and the person develops into an anal expulsive, which sounds messy and is! The person may also be over generous and for some reason sadistic!
Phallic (4-6ish)
Pleasure is now centred on the penis (boys) and clitoris (girls). It’s during the Phallic stage that the child starts to develop desires for the opposite sex parent and as a result fear of the same sex parent finding out.
The boys’ desire for the mother results in him wanting to take the place of the father (Oedipus complex). This causes anxiety since they believe if the father discovers their desire he will castrate them.
A similar process (Elektra conflict) occurs in girls, with them blaming their mother for removing their penis, and desiring their father since he has one! Both sexes eventually resolve the situation by identifying with the same sex parent and adopting their moral values and so the Superego is born! However, since boys have more to lose (their willy) their anxiety is greater and so they develop a stronger conscience. Girls on the other hand only lose their penis envy when they have children themselves.
The Oedipal feelings are repressed until adolescence when they become displaced onto members of the opposite sex.
Latency (6ish to puberty)
A quiet period almost dormant period during which time the sexes go their separate ways and the child learns appropriate social and gender specific rules and patterns of behaviour.
Genital (puberty onwards)
Libido is now directed towards the genitals and sexual maturity begins. According to Freud, in a few cases, the defence mechanisms prevent some people from ever reaching this stage. In the highly unlikely event of a question 8 or 9 on anal or oral sex, or on masturbation (can’t really see it somehow), then this would be ideal because Freud saw these as immature forms of sex in those who had never reached full sexual maturity.
Evaluation of the Psychodynamic approach
Good points
The psychodynamic approach was the first to consider the importance of childhood in shaping adult behaviour and personality. Although many later psychological theories have adopted a similar idea, most modern theories believe that Freud probably did place too great an emphasis on the early years.
Freud’s theories are bases upon detailed case studies that provide an in-depth consideration of the human mind.
The methods that Freud developed have been built upon by later theorists and many of his ideas are still used as forms of treatment today. Psychodynamic Interpersonal Theory is still used as an effective form of treatment for certain types of depression. A theory that can be applied appears to be a theory that at least to some extent has validity.
Freud’s theory is probably the most influential in psychology. Certainly in the early twentieth century, along with behaviourism, it was the dominant theory in psychology. Today in the USA it is still widely regarded and therapies based on its ideas are still widely used.
However
Psychodynamic theory has little or no objective or scientific evidence to support it. Freud’s concepts of id, ego, superego, Thanatos etc., are constructs from his own mind and as such are subjective. Later psychodynamic theorists have provided alternative explanations for our behaviour, but these too can be criticised in the same way.
Later in the course we shall look at the nature of science. Although Freud set out with admiral intentions to create a scientific explanation of the human mind he clearly failed. For Karl Popper a science needs to be testable, objective, falsifiable and based on observations (empirical). Freud’s theory fails in all aspects. It is impossible to test Freud’s ideas. How can we possible test or disprove the existence of the Oedipus Complex. The story of Little Hans is cited by Freud as evidence but this is clearly a circular argument. There are far more plausible explanations of Hans’ fear of horses without referring to hypothetical unconscious mental constructs.
As for objective! One hundred analysts will provide one hundred different interpretations of the meanings of your dreams. Psychodynamic theory is entirely down to the interpretation of the theorists.
The concepts suggested are sufficiently vague to allow them to be adapted to any situation, so can be used to explain any pattern of behaviour. However, the true test of a scientific theory (which is what Freud was aiming for) is its predictive value. Sadly Freud’s and other psychodynamic theories seem to be low in predictive value.
Freud’s emphasis on the early years appears to be overstated. As we saw in year 12, even the most sever privation in early childhood can be overcome in later years.
Psychodynamic theory is reductionist since it seeks to explain complex human behaviour in terms of instinctive drives. Like most other approaches it is Tiealso deterministic, believing that our behaviour is beyond our control since it results from unconscious forces and our past.
Good points
The psychodynamic approach was the first to consider the importance of childhood in shaping adult behaviour and personality. Although many later psychological theories have adopted a similar idea, most modern theories believe that Freud probably did place too great an emphasis on the early years.
Freud’s theories are bases upon detailed case studies that provide an in-depth consideration of the human mind.
The methods that Freud developed have been built upon by later theorists and many of his ideas are still used as forms of treatment today. Psychodynamic Interpersonal Theory is still used as an effective form of treatment for certain types of depression. A theory that can be applied appears to be a theory that at least to some extent has validity.
Freud’s theory is probably the most influential in psychology. Certainly in the early twentieth century, along with behaviourism, it was the dominant theory in psychology. Today in the USA it is still widely regarded and therapies based on its ideas are still widely used.
However
Psychodynamic theory has little or no objective or scientific evidence to support it. Freud’s concepts of id, ego, superego, Thanatos etc., are constructs from his own mind and as such are subjective. Later psychodynamic theorists have provided alternative explanations for our behaviour, but these too can be criticised in the same way.
Later in the course we shall look at the nature of science. Although Freud set out with admiral intentions to create a scientific explanation of the human mind he clearly failed. For Karl Popper a science needs to be testable, objective, falsifiable and based on observations (empirical). Freud’s theory fails in all aspects. It is impossible to test Freud’s ideas. How can we possible test or disprove the existence of the Oedipus Complex. The story of Little Hans is cited by Freud as evidence but this is clearly a circular argument. There are far more plausible explanations of Hans’ fear of horses without referring to hypothetical unconscious mental constructs.
As for objective! One hundred analysts will provide one hundred different interpretations of the meanings of your dreams. Psychodynamic theory is entirely down to the interpretation of the theorists.
The concepts suggested are sufficiently vague to allow them to be adapted to any situation, so can be used to explain any pattern of behaviour. However, the true test of a scientific theory (which is what Freud was aiming for) is its predictive value. Sadly Freud’s and other psychodynamic theories seem to be low in predictive value.
Freud’s emphasis on the early years appears to be overstated. As we saw in year 12, even the most sever privation in early childhood can be overcome in later years.
Psychodynamic theory is reductionist since it seeks to explain complex human behaviour in terms of instinctive drives. Like most other approaches it is Tiealso deterministic, believing that our behaviour is beyond our control since it results from unconscious forces and our past.
