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Since psychology began to evolve as a distinct subject back in the nineteenth century, different ‘psychologists’ have had different ideas about what aspects of human development should be the focus of attention. These differences are most apparent in their methods and in the theories they have produced. Loosely, these different approaches can be grouped together into what today are referred to as ‘perspectives’ or simply ‘approaches.’ Many should be familiar to you, including psychodynamic, behaviourist, cognitive, medical (biological) and humanistic. However, others will be strangers, such as evolutionary and social constructionist and will not be covered here! Basically an approach is a collection of ideas or basic principles that share some common underlying structure. Approaches are broader than theories and not so clearly defined. In fact all the approaches we shall consider are built up around two or more theories, so for example, the behaviourist approach includes operant and classical conditioning, the work of Watson, Pavlov, Thorndike and Skinner, amongst others. However, although the theories are different their underlying principles are similar, i.e. behaviour is learned. Psychodynamic theory incorporates the work of Freud, Jung, Eriksson, Adler and co. Although some chose to concentrate on sexual influences whilst others focus more on social or cultural aspects they all consider the overriding importance of the unconscious mind in determining our behaviour! That brings me to another consideration. Most of the approaches we shall look at believe our behaviour is determined, either by our genes, our past or our environment. Only the very nice people behind the humanistic approach believe that we shape our own destiny and have ‘free-will.’ Clearly you should by this stage have a good idea of what the approaches are, so inevitably much of what follows should be old hat. As a result the format and purpose of this booklet will be a little different. This will hopefully be more of a practical guide to answering question 8 or 9 of unit 5! I will try to concentrate on aspects of the approaches that are useful in explaining everyday behaviours and provide examples of how the questions should be tackled. We will then look at an evaluation of the theories, their methods of research and finally evaluations of methods, since as we shall see, this is how the questions are set out.
Before we start, a quick reminder of other areas of the course that have considered the approaches. Memory: Freud and repression Attachments: Explanations of attachment (Freud, Learning theory, SLT) Abnormality The psychodynamic, behaviourist, cognitive, medical models Schizophrenia, depression, phobias: as above!
Some examples of questions 8 and 9 This is the only paper you’ll probably ever sit where the questions are the same every year! Unfortunately, the all important stimulus material that precedes them is different and this means your answers will have to be flexible. Confused? Here are questions 8 and 9 from the summer 2002 paper. You would be expected to provide an answer to one or t’other!
Section C 8. All the people who know Errol agree that he is a very attractive young man. He has a fine dress sense and muscular physique and handsome features. Errol is also shortsighted. He tried wearing contact lenses but found them uncomfortable. He was prescribed a pair of glasses but only rarely wears them because he thinks they spoil his good looks. Some people think he is extremely vain.
(a) Describe how two approaches might try to explain Errol’s vanity. (6 marks + 6 marks) (b) Assess one of these explanations of Errol’s vanity in terms of its strengths and limitations. (6 marks) (c) Analyse how one of the approaches you described in part (a) might investigate Errol’s vanity. (6 marks) (d) Evaluate the method of investigating Errol’s vanity that you referred to in part (c). (6 marks)
9. Anne enjoys fast driving. She enjoys it when she is in someone else’s car going fast but she enjoys it even more when she is driving fast herself. She finds high speeds exhilarating. Within a year of passing her test Anne has been charged with breaking motorway speed limits three times and is now in danger of losing her licence.
(a) Describe how two approaches might try to explain Anne’s exhilaration from speeding. (6 marks + 6 marks) (b) Assess one of these explanations of Anne’s exhilaration from speeding in terms of its strengths and limitations. (6 marks) (c) Analyse how one of the approaches you described in part (a) might investigate Anne’s exhilaration from speeding. (6 marks) (d) Evaluate the method of investigating Anne’s exhilaration from speeding that you referred to in part (c). (6 marks)
The same four questions each time:
Good news: the four questions always follow the same pattern, only the stimulus material changes. Suppose you use the medical and psychodynamic approaches for part a; you can assess either of these for part b, and analyse either for part c. That is you could assess the psychodynamic in part b and then decide to analyse the medical for part c. However, in part d you need to evaluate the methods of the approach used in part c! Follow that? Make sure you take this into consideration before starting your answer. In practice I find that the choice of approaches for part (a) is clear cut. Hopefully, two likely approaches will jump out at you! For part (b) obviously choose the approach that you are best able to evaluate. However, when considering your choice for part (c) bear in mind you’re stuck with the same approach for part (d) as well!
Rules for deciding the stimulus material Topics can be chosen from:
Note this list excludes A2 topics, including many that we have not covered! The reason for this is obvious. At AS all students cover the same six topics. At A2 different schools cover different topics so examining these areas would put some students at a clear advantage. However, there have been occasions recently when the rules on this seem to have been bent a tad, with questions on fear of ageing (phobia perhaps) and loss of contact with reality (a schizoid symptom).
Some possible subjects: Bullying, joy riding, white knuckle rides, wanting to be on stage, dangerous sports, desire to own your own home, lottery addiction, desire to be in charge, desire to look good, wanting to have a baby, disobedient behaviour, rave behaviour… Think of some of your own. Remember that in your answers you need to be constantly referring to the stimulus material. Joe grew up in the town but spent his summers staying with his grandfather on the farm. The summers were always the best time and he felt more at home there, helping his beloved grandfather look after the livestock and the crops. When he was asked about what he wanted to be when he grew up, he said ‘a farmer.’ This pleased the old man enormously, though he didn’t really believe it. When he was old enough Joe moved to the farm and eventually took it over.
It has been claimed by some people that there is a growing trend for ‘body decoration’ in young people in Britain today. Many young men and young women now display a wide range of tattoos and have almost every conceivable part of their bodies pierced and adorned with jewellery. How might this be explained? Henry is a man who often finds it difficult to distinguish between reality and fantasy. For example, he believes that he is better than anyone else at the job he does, and that rapid promotion will inevitably follow when other people realise this too. However, few of his colleagues believe this and feel that Henry is not really facing up to the realities of his everyday life. How might this be explained? When I am on playground duty at the primary school where I teach I have observed quite significant differences in the behaviour of boys and girls. Most of the boys spend the playtime running around, chasing each other and often have little scraps. Sometimes one of them actually gets knocked to the ground and an adult has to intervene. Occasionally one or two of the girls join in the racing around the playground but more typically they sit in small groups and play make-believe games. A survey has shown that a large number of people have a dread of ageing. They are particularly worried about looking old and spend a great deal of time and money to ensure that they look young for as long as possible.
The approaches
Psychodynamic “Psycho” meaning mind and “dynamic” suggesting movement. Central to Freud’s theory was psychic energy that motivates us and creates conflicts. Like energy in the physical world, psychic energy cannot be created or destroyed, but moves from one form to another for example from love to hate, or from thinking to acting. Psychodynamic therefore refers to this constant movement of psychic energy within the mind and how this influences our thoughts and behaviours. Freud was the founding father and concentrated largely on the unconscious forces underlying our personality. In fact the first sentence of most part (a) answers using the psychodynamic theory, could begin with a sentence such as: “The psychodynamic approach would explain X’s behaviour in terms of conflict within the unconscious mind resulting from childhood experiences.” You would then need to go on and consider other aspects of Freud’s, Jung’s or possibly even Eriksson’s or Adler’s theories. Obviously you are most familiar with Freud’s but there are aspects of the others that may be useful, and for these a very limited knowledge will suffice. For example, Sylvia’s desire to climb mountains may be an attempt to overcome an “inferiority complex,” an concept created by Alfred Adler.
Sigmund Freud Freud separated the mind into two distinct domains, the conscious mind that we are aware of and the unconscious that is unknown to us. The conscious part he likened to the tip of an iceberg with the unconscious forming the larger part beneath the surface of conscious awareness. According to Freud, the unconscious, holding our deepest, darkest thoughts and desires has a much greater impact on our personality and behaviour than the conscious mind.
Personality The structure of personality that you all know and love, illustrates this conscious/unconscious dichotomy. When considering personality, try to remember how it ties in with the psychosexual stages that follow. Id The id motivates you to seek pleasure whilst avoiding pain and do so at whatever cost to others; it is entirely selfish. The Id operates on what Freud called the Pleasure Principle and is present at birth. The Id in turn is driven by two other instinctive drives:
The Id therefore drives us to seek instant gratification and is happy for us to destroy anything that gets in our way. If a person we love is standing in the way of pleasure, we can according to Freud, unconsciously love that person whilst hating them at the same time. Whereas such conflicting emotions would be questioned by the conscious mind they are tolerated by the unconscious Id!
For those interested: Thanatos is the Greek equivalent of the Roman God Mors (from which we derive words like mortuary and the French for dead ‘mort.’ In Greek myth he is the brother of Hypnos (God of sleep) who seeks to imitate his older brother. Helios (the God of the Sun) never shines on Thanatos. Eros of course was the Greek God of love, who’s statue stands in Picadilly Circus. Use in questions 8 and 9: Anyone behaving in a selfish manner, craving pleasures such as chocolate, wealth, promotion, behaving in a violent manner towards others or involved in dangerous sports or pastimes.
Ego The Ego develops to resolve the conflict arising from potty training during the anal stage of development. The Ego represents what the conscious mind believes is the real ‘us.’ Operating on the reality principle, the Ego is measured and logical and seeks to maintain balance in a real world, allowing the Id some satisfaction but laying down boundaries which it cannot cross. If the Ego feels that the conscious mind id being threatened by unpleasant material it deploys its armoury of defence mechanisms that we’ll look at later. Uses in questions 8 and 9: If the person is facing dilemmas or looking for balance or stability. The defence mechanisms are more useful for these questions.
Superego The ego develops during the phallic stage as a resolution to the Oedipus complex or Elektra conflict. The Superego operates on the morality principle and motivates us to behave in a socially responsible and acceptable manner. Freud subdivided the Superego into two parts: Ego-ideal which tells us how we should behave and Conscience which nags us when we don’t! The Superego is often underestimated in its influence on personality, as, like the Id it is mostly unconscious. Uses in question 8 and 9 If the person is overly concerned about what others are thinking or trying to please others. Anyone behaving in an authoritarian or overly moralistic way.
Healthy and unhealthy personalities Freud believed that a strong Ego was essential to psychological health. Psychological well-being depends on minimising conflict and satisfying the needs of the different parts of personality. If the Id gains the upper hand we are likely to become selfish, antisocial perhaps even psychopathic. If the Superego comes out on top the person will be straight-laced, bossy, worried and moralistic. On occasions a weak Ego can result in a see-sawing effect with personality alternating between different states. Freud’s explanation for manic-depression was a swinging between the Id (causing mania) and then overcompensation by the Ego causing depression.
Ego defence mechanisms Some of these will be familiar, such as repression, whereas others will be new, for example reaction formation. However, these are very useful in attempting to explain a person’s behaviour, and afterwards I’ll include a set of behaviours for you to attempt to explain. All ego defence mechanisms are operations of the unconscious mind and as a result the real reasons underlying your behaviour that results is not known. Repression Thoughts or desires that are likely to be disturbing or cause psychological harm are locked away in the unconscious mind. However, though hidden from conscious thought they can still cause psychological disturbance and influence your actions. Displacement Re-directing an emotion or action towards a substitute. Classic example would be anger towards your boss displaced onto the dog! Displacement usually involves anger! Note: a particularly useful form of displacement for these questions would be displacement of anger inwards or against yourself. Freud considered this to be an explanation of depression, but could also be used to explain any form of self-abuse such as alcohol, drugs or perhaps even multiple piercing! Projection Seeing your own unpleasant or socially unacceptable characteristics in others. An example would be animal rights activists who complain about other people’s aggression towards animals when they use violent methods themselves. Reaction formation Taking an outward stance that is opposite to the unacceptable desire you have. Obvious examples would b young boys saying they hate a girl when secretly they fancy her, or men with homosexual desires taking an overly homophobic stance. Denial One that you’re all familiar with. The person simply denies the existence of the problem. Topical example, Charles Kennedy denying his drink problem. Sublimation Different to all the others in that the person does something positive with the desire. The person may take the aggression and channel it into running, boxing, management etc. In fact Freud believed that all our positive attributes were sublimations of our sexual desires and drives! Regression Faced with stress the person reverts to an earlier, usually childhood, stage of development. For example they may suck their thumbs, wet the bed, throw tantrums etc. Having learned the various defence mechanisms have a go at the exercise at the back of the booklet, matching the behaviour with the appropriate mechanism. Regression brings me nicely to the next useful aspect of Freud’s theory, and again an aspect that you’re all familiar with, the psychosexual stages.
The psychosexual stages of development Freud believed that as we developed our sexual or life energy (libido) focused on different parts of the body. Each stage would have an optimal level of satisfaction, too much or too little satisfaction in each stage would lead to fixations and these would shape later personality. The stages and fixations are particularly useful for explaining personality types in questions 8 and 9. Oral (0-2ish) The child is born into this stage and satisfaction centres on the mouth, eating and sucking. Too little oral stimulation (if I can say that) results in a person that is uncaring and treats people like objects. In later life they may develop behaviours such as smoking, drinking, nail-biting and over-eating. Too much oral stimulation results in a personality that is gullible and overly enthusiastic. Anal (2-4ish) Pleasure is now centred on the anus, particularly defecation and the pleasure of having a good dump! The Ego develops in order to resolve conflict between the Id (which wants instant pleasure and pooing at will) and parents who require restraint! Overly strict potty training or too little anal pleasure, (I definitely can’t say that!), results in an anally retentive personality. The person grows up to be obsessively tidy and organised. Relaxed potty training (too much of that pleasure mentioned above) and the person develops into an anal expulsive, which sounds messy and is! The person may also be over generous and for some reason sadistic! Phallic (4-6ish) Pleasure is now centred on the penis (boys) and clitoris (girls). Its during the Phallic stage that the child starts to develop desires for the same sex parent and as a result fear of the same sex parent finding out. The boys desire for the mother results in him wanting to take the place of the father (Oedipus complex). This causes anxiety since they believe if the father discovers their desire he will castrate them. A similar process (Elektra conflict) occurs in girls, with them blaming their mother for removing their penis, and desiring their father since he has one! Both sexes eventually resolve the situation by identifying with the same sex parent and adopting their moral values and so the Superego is born! However, since boys have more to lose (their willy) their anxiety is greater and so they develop a stronger conscience. Girls on the other hand only lose their penis envy when they have children themselves. The Oedipal feelings are repressed until adolescence when they become displaced onto members of the opposite sex. Latency (6ish to puberty) A quiet period almost dormant period during which time the sexes go their separate ways and the child learns appropriate social and gender specific rules and patterns of behaviour. Genital (puberty onwards) Libido is now directed towards the genitals and sexual maturity begins. According to Freud, in a few cases, the defence mechanisms prevent some people from ever reaching this stage. In the highly unlikely event of a question 8 or 9 on anal or oral sex, or on masturbation (can’t really see it somehow), then this would be ideal because Freud saw these as immature forms of sex in those who had never reached full sexual maturity!
Other theorists Not a lot more I can think of to add about Freud that would be useful. However, remember that there are other psychodynamic theorists that you could include. Adler and the inferiority complex According to Adler's theory, each of us is born into the world with a sense of inferiority. We start as a weak and helpless child and strive to overcome these deficiencies by become superior to those around us. He called this a striving for superiority, and like Freud's Eros and Thanatos, he saw this as the driving force behind all human thoughts, emotions, and behaviours.
Our feelings of inferiority motivate us to become influential, famous and successful. However, failure to succeed can lead to the ‘inferiority complex’ in which we see ourselves as weak and failing.
Inferiority complexes: always easy meat for the cartoonists!
Using the psychodynamic approach to tackle the ‘Sylvia’ question The psychodynamic approach would look at unconscious forces driving Sylvia to climb mountains. Childhood would be considered crucial as would conflict between opposing forces in the unconscious mind. Two such opposing drives, according to Freud, are Eros and Thanatos both of which provide instinctive energy for the id. Thanatos is seen as destructive and drives the individual to harm others or themselves. Taking part in a dangerous sport such as climbing would help fulfil the unconscious wishes of Thanatos. However, balance between the opposing forces would be maintained by a healthy Ego that would keep Eros (the life instinct) satisfied by keeping Sylvia safe by ensuring she uses ropes and takes other sensible precautions. The desire to climb mountains could be an example of sublimation, an Ego defence mechanism, with the Sylvia’s aggressive tendencies channelled into the socially desirable activity of climbing mountains. If you had time: Although Freud pioneered the psychodynamic approach, others with slightly different ideas came later. One of these was Alfred Adler. Adler may consider Sylvia’s attempts to overcome her unconscious feelings of inferiority by climbing mountains as a means to exert her authority and superiority over others.
Assessing the psychodynamic approach (question b) using Sylvia as an example: The psychodynamic approach would consider the motivating forces behind Sylvia’s desire and would be able to explain why some people are driven to climb whilst others are not. Unconscious forces can be seen to be at work in observable ways such as through so called ‘Freudian slips.’ However, there is no scientific or empirical evidence for the theory and different analysts would have different ideas on the nature of the forces at work. As such it is subjective and non-falsifiable. Concepts such as id and Thanatos are hypothetical and used merely as means of explaining ideas we know little about. The approach also fails to consider conscious thought processes or the effect of role models. Other factors such as brain chemistry and the role played by hormones and neurotransmitters such as adrenaline in producing the ‘buzz’ of climbing are ignored.
Assessment of the Psychodynamic approach (part b questions) This should be like teaching grandma to suck eggs! How many criticisms of Freud’s theory can you come up with in 6 minutes? However, the question does ask for an assessment, so don’t forget the good points too! Word of warning however, a later question asks for an evaluation of the methods used, so try to avoid answering this question in section (b). Good points The psychodynamic approach was the first to consider the importance of childhood in shaping adult behaviour and personality. Although many later psychological theories have adopted a similar idea, most modern theories believe that Freud probably did place too great an emphasis on the early years. Freud’s theories are bases upon detailed case studies that provide an in-depth consideration of the human mind; (oops… an evaluation of methods, not theory!) The methods that Freud developed have been built upon by later theorists and many of his ideas are still used as forms of treatment today. Freud’s theory is probably the most influential in psychology. However Psychodynamic theory has little or no objective or scientific evidence to support it. Freud’s concepts of id, ego, superego, Thanatos etc., are constructs from his own mind and as such are subjective. Later psychodynamic theorists have provided alternative explanations for our behaviour, but these too can be criticised in the same way. The concepts suggested are sufficiently vague to allow them to be adapted to any situation, so can be used to explain any pattern of behaviour. However, the true test of a scientific theory (which is what Freud was aiming for) is its predictive value. Sadly Freud’s and other psychodynamic theories seem to be low in predictive value. On a similar point, a true scientific theory should be open to proof. Because of its vagueness and use of unconscious desires, Freud’s theory is impossible to test or prove one way or the other. Freud’s emphasis on the early years appears to be overstated. As we saw in year 12, even the most sever privation in early childhood can be overcome in later years. Psychodynamic theory is reductionist since it seeks to explain complex human behaviour in terms of instinctive drives. Like most other approaches it is also deterministic, believing that our behaviour is beyond our control since it results from unconscious forces and our past.
Methods used by the psychodynamic approach Psychoanalysis assumes that our behaviours are determined by unconscious desires, feelings and fears. In order to either treat or study further the underlying reasons for behaviour, we must, according to the psychodynamic approach tap into these unconscious thoughts. Typically research involves case studies in which patients undergoing treatment for neurotic disorders. Various methods are used for exploring their unconscious minds. Psychoanalysis (or catharticism) Typically Freud would use hypnosis to tap into the unconscious mind. Often uncovering the repressed material at the cause of a patient’s neuroses would be emotionally painful. Later, Freud abandoned this method for free association.
Free Association Patients are encouraged to say anything that comes into their mind regardless of how trivial it may seem, or how embarrassing it may be to the person. It is similar in some respects to word association, so for example if the patient says ‘anger’ after talking about their boss it would signify an unconscious loathing of their boss, which may be the root cause of their problems. Usually Freud would concentrate on childhood experiences and look for associations dating back to early life. Freud believed that patients stuck in a ‘train of thought’ who are finding it difficult to change subject, are close to uncovering the unconscious thought at the root of their problems. Freudian slips These may be uncovered during free association or during everyday conversation and give away unconscious thought processes or desires, such as saying ‘I loathe my sister’ rather than ‘I love my sister.’ Dream analysis Freud believed that dreams are symbolic representations of our unconscious thoughts. By deciphering the code, Freud, and others since, have believed that they can explore the unconscious mind.
Assessment of the methods used (part d questions) Case studies provide us with depth as well as breadth of detail. Carried out over long periods of time they can produce a very detailed and thorough account of a person’s thoughts, desires, motives and troubles. Given that psychodynamic theorists need to study the unconscious mind these are the only methods available. They would argue that in the past one hundred years or so that they have been effective in treating countless numbers of patients. However, the methods are very subjective. It is unlikely that different analysts will ever agree on the nature or meaning of the material uncovered. In addition, as we saw in AS memory, there have been claims of ‘false memory syndrome, in which patients undergoing analysis may have had their memories altered by the treatment they were receiving.
There is no way of knowing whether what appears in a dream or is uncovered during free association tells us anything about the unconscious mind as psychoanalysts would have us believe. There is no scientific way of verifying any of the claims made. To benefit from the methods used (these so-called talking cures), the patient requires a certain level of intelligence and verbal dexterity to be able to communicate what they are experiencing. This clearly rules out swathes of the population, such as children or the less well educated, so as a result the approach is limited and even more difficult to use to create a general theory. Speaking of generalisation, the case study method is used on patients with psychological problems! Can we really generalise from such troubled people to the population as a whole? Finally, analysis of this sort is very time consuming and expensive. This may be a bonus to the therapist, but again it limits the sample size and again limits our ability to generalise, since only the relatively wealthy and those with time on their hands can undergo the procedure.
Methods used by the psychodynamic approach using Sylvia as an example Sylvia’s desire to climb mountains would most likely be researched using the case study method of investigation. This would involve Sylvia making a number of visits to see a therapist over many weeks or months. The therapist may use any one of a number of methods to try and uncover the unconscious workings of Sylvia’s mind in an attempt to discover what motivates her behaviour. The most likely method would be free association in which Sylvia would be asked to explore her mind and talk about anything and everything that comes to mind whilst the analyst would make notes. Occasionally the analyst may intervene but mostly Sylvia would be expected to talk without interruption. The analyst may for example want Sylvia to explore her childhood memories and relationship with parents. The analyst would be looking for tell-tale signs that unconscious material was coming to the surface. Other methods may include hypnosis, word association or dream analysis.
Evaluation of the methods used by this approach using Sylvia as an example The task of making unconscious material conscious is not easy! However, the methods suggested have been tried and tested over many years and are considered by therapists to have been successful. Unfortunately the methods, particularly dream analysis, are very subjective. There is no objective or scientific way of checking their validity and they all depend to some extent on the individual interpretation of the analyst. In a similar way there is no way of knowing whether the material uncovered is actually a true reflection of the material in the unconscious or even whether or not the material recalled as in some way been influenced by the therapy itself. There have been many cases in recent years in which analysts have been accused of unwittingly creating false memories in the minds of their patients. It could be that Sylvia is well educated and able to communicate her thoughts and feelings eloquently. However, if she is not then these ‘talking cures’ are not going to be as effective and the job of the analyst will be even more difficult and time consuming.
Behaviourist The behaviourist approach developed over a number of years and was influenced by a number of pioneering thinkers and scientists/psychologists. I have seen 1913 mentioned as a ‘birth date’ for the approach, however, Pavlov’s work on dogs which was to become crucial to the perspective started many years earlier. Behaviourism developed largely out of dissatisfaction with the psychodynamic approach and earlier theories of consciousness. Freud had set out to create a scientific study of the mind but his methods and resulting theory were most unscientific. His methods relied on introspection and subjective interpretation by analysts, his theory was based on hypothetical constructs and non-testable or verifiable ideas. John Watson (he of Watson & Raynor fame and Little Albert) wanted a theory of behaviour that was testable. The problem was in the early decades of the twentieth century there was no way of recording brain activity let alone mental processes. Result….ignore the workings of the brain, treat it as a black box, receiving information from the environment (stimulus) and creating a reaction (response). At its simplest behaviourist psychology is simply that: stimulus-response (S-R) psychology. Watson built his theory on the earlier work of others, most notably Ivan Pavlov and Edward Thorndike. Pavlov’s work on the digestive system of dogs in the late nineteenth century had given rise to one way of learning, classical conditioning. Edward Thorndike’s work on observation of learning in various species had led to his “Law of Effect.” He claimed that animals learn by trial and error. A successful outcome (reinforcement) will result in that behaviour being repeated whereas a negative outcome (punishment) will result in that behaviour becoming extinct. This formed the basis of Skinner’s later work on operant conditioning. John Watson himself coined the term ‘behaviourism’ in 1913, though being American he spelt it incorrectly (behaviorism!). Classical and operant conditioning were there at the birth of behaviourism and were later joined by their younger bastard brother (or sister) social learning theory. As far as questions 8 and 9 are concerned, if you decide to apply the behaviourist approach then use conditioning with confidence. If you decide to throw in SLT as well, then try to add that strictly speaking it is neo-behaviourist and is a form of learning based on imitation. Behaviourists therefore believe that we are a product of our environment. At birth we are a ‘tabula rasa’ or blank slate. Our genetic make-up is largely ignored. Our personality, IQ, achievements and behaviour are shaped by the environment in which we are reared. Behaviourism is therefore at the extreme nurture of the nature-nurture debate. However, like the psychodynamic theory it is determinist, seeing our outcomes as under the control of our environment rather than of our unconscious minds.
Classical conditioning Pavlov noticed that his dogs would start to salivate when they heard the footsteps of the research assistant who they knew was going to feed them. Pavlov realised that the dogs had learned to associate food with the footsteps and wondered if this association would extend to other things, most famously the ringing of a bell. This bit is for the purposes of explanation and to remind you of the terminology, it is unlikely to be of use in answering the question 8 and 9s.
Although the terminology seems daunting, if you just remember that conditioning refers to learning it helps. The unconditioned response is one that does not require learning, such as a reflex. You do not learn to salivate to food it happens naturally from birth. In the case of Little Albert, the unconditioned stimulus is being frightened by a loud noise. A conditioned response on the other hand needs to be learned, such as salivating to the sound of a bell or being frightened of white rats. For the purposes of answering the questions, most things can be associated with other things, for example my association of seeing after-images with a tone, or association of the number 3 with receiving an electric shock. Joe’s desire to be a farmer may stem from an early association between farming and long hot summer days.
Other behaviourist principles Higher order conditioning. Best explained using Pavlov’s dogs as an example. Pavlov trained his dogs to salivate to a bell by pairing it with food. He then paired the bell with a light, eventually resulting in the dogs salivating to the light….even though it had never been paired with food. In human terms most of our associations are probably higher order, for example our association of money with pleasure. Money has no intrinsic pleasure-giving value, but it can be exchanged for all manner of things that do. Extinction Sooner or later if the association is broken the learning will be extinguished. In Pavlovian terms if the bell is continually rung and no food presented then the association is lost. Spontaneous recovery Having been extinguished an association is much quicker to establish a second time around, perhaps after just one renewed pairing. So having extinguished the association between bell and food, a single pairing in future may re-establish the link and the dogs will begin salivating once more. Generalisation Pavlov’s dogs would salivate if they heard a similar sort of sound. In humans people that are scared by spiders will often also fear crane flies (daddy long legs) since they are sufficiently similar in appearance. Little Albert generalised his fear of white rats to cotton wool and Santa’s beard. Discrimination I suppose the opposite of generalisation. People frightened of spiders aren’t usually afraid of ladybirds because they look sufficiently different. Little Albert wasn’t afraid of other toys such as wooden blocks. Practical applications to answering approaches questions Classical conditioning is particularly good at explaining the acquisition of fears such as phobias, as in the case of Little Albert. Advertising makes heavy use of this method too, getting us to associate products with other various pleasures. Cars are often associated with women, diet coke with half naked men, Hagan Das ice cream with sex, oxo with family life, coffee with romance, John Smith’s with a care-free lifestyle etc… Classical conditioning is best used for explaining the acquisition of a behaviour, for example how we learn a phobia, how we learn to associate climbing with glamour, clubbing with enjoyment etc. As we’ll see later, operant conditioning is better for explaining how a given behaviour is maintained or increased.
Operant conditioning Edward Thorndike ‘founded’ this form of learning when in 1911 he described his so called ‘law of effect.’ Working on a variety of species he reported that a behaviour followed by favourable consequences would cause the behaviour to be repeated whereas one followed by negative consequences would result in the behaviour being less likely in future. However, it was BF (Burrhus Frederick) Skinner that popularised operant conditioning through research carried out on rats and pigeons in his Skinner boxes. Students are often confused about the difference between these two forms of conditioning.
To discover the precise effect of reinforcement and punishments on behaviour Skinner would observe animals in laboratory conditions where environments could be tightly controlled.
Reinforcement and Punishment Reinforcement: anything that increases the chances of the behaviour that preceded it being performed in future. Primary reinforcers are ones that satisfy a biological need, for example food, drink, sex.
Secondary reinforcers are reinforcers that we have come to associate with primary reinforcers.
Money: will buy us primary reinforcers Promotion: will get us more money Exam success: will help us get promotion…
Other secondary reinforcers would include smiles, compliments, gifts etc. Secondary reinforcers are every bit as powerful as primary reinforcers.
Reinforcement can be negative! However, this does not mean it is bad! A negative reinforcer is something that takes away an unpleasant consequence so still results in the behaviour being more likely in future. For example, taking an aspirin that takes away a headache. The removal of the unpleasant headache makes the behaviour that preceded it, taking an aspirin, more likely in future. Other negative reinforcers would include parole, escape from danger etc.
Punishment: an outcome that decreases the probability that the behaviour that preceded it would be repeated in future. Primary punishers are ones that cause biological unpleasantness such as pain, extreme heat or cold. Secondary punishers are ones associated with these, such as being criticised, a frown or dirty look etc. Punishment can also be positive or negative in the same senses of the words as used for reinforcement. A positive punishment is one that causes pain or unpleasantness, a negative punisher is one that takes away something pleasant such as loss of pocket money, being grounded, being dumped, a drop in pay etc. Applying to the approaches questions I find operant conditioning approach to be the easiest and most flexible to apply. Operant conditioning is good for explaining how behaviours can be maintained or increased, for example climbing higher and higher mountains, losing more and more weight, getting more tattoos, driving faster and more recklessly, wanting bigger houses, more possessions etc. As we’ll see with schedules of reinforcement, gambling behaviour lends itself perfectly to operant explanations.
Schedules of reinforcement Continuous schedule So far we have assumed continuous reinforcement in which every behaviour is followed by a reward, for example giving the rat food each time it presses a lever. However, this has problems. Firstly, the rat will soon become sated (full), so less motivate to press the lever. Secondly, as soon as the reinforcement stops the rat will stop pressing the lever. In human terms drinks machines operate on a continuous schedule. Every behaviour, inserting money should be reinforced with a drink. If on one trial the reinforcement fails (no drink) the behaviour (putting in money) becomes extinguished. Other schedules can be based on time (interval) or number of behaviours performed (ratio). Interval schedules A behaviour may be rewarded every 5 minutes providing the behaviour has occurred in that time. This is called fixed interval. Payment at the end of the month would be a human example. Alternatively, reward may be on a variable interval schedule. Reward may be after 5 minutes, or sometimes 15, perhaps sometimes 2 minutes etc. This is less predictable and leads to slower extinction. If after 5 minutes there is no reward the animal keeps pressing. Perhaps reward may be after 25 minutes this time. Ratio schedules Time is no longer an issue. In rat terms reward occurs after so many presses. This may be every 10 presses (fixed interval) or it may be variable ratio.
Applying the behaviourist approach to the ‘Approaches’ questions. As I said earlier, the two forms of conditioning can be applied differently, classical for development of the behaviour and operant for maintenance. I’ll illustrate using ‘Sylvia the mountaineer’ as an example: The behaviourist approach would seek to explain how Sylvia learned her mountain-climbing behaviour. Factors within the environment rather than any internal or mental processes would be used. Classical conditioning would explain how Sylvia acquired her climbing behaviour through association. Rock climbing has a glamorous image as can be seen from the glossy images of fit young lycra-clad people seen on the front covers of numerous climbing magazines. Those that climb mountains become associated with this image. Social learning theorists (neo-behaviourists) would explain the acquisition of the behaviour in terms of imitation. Having seen others climb, Sylvia may want to copy, particularly if she has seen other people being rewarded for the behaviour through praise and adulation. This is called vicarious reinforcement. Operant conditioning would explain how Sylvia’s behaviour has been maintained and shaped. Reaching a summit is in itself acting as a powerful reinforcer, but the praise and social approval she receives on her safe return will reinforce her behaviour resulting in her tackling ever more difficult ascents. Giving up climbing would have the opposite effect, resulting in social disapproval, a powerful secondary punishment. Two points:
The case of Sylvia as an illustration of evaluating the behaviourist approach Behaviourist explanations of Sylvia’s mountain-climbing behaviour will be well-grounded and scientifically based. Their theories have been used to explain all manner of behaviours and used to treat a variety of disorders such as phobias. It has also been used to predict behaviour which in scientific terms adds to its validity as an explanation. Although the approach will consider environmental factors involved in determining Sylvia’s behaviour it completely ignores any mental functions such as thoughts and emotions. Some mountaineers may suggest they get a ‘buzz’ for example, but behaviourists would not consider the importance of this. Similarly any neuro-chemical influences such as adrenaline will be ignored. The theory is therefore notoriously reductionist. There are probably lots of different reasons contributing to Sylvia’s desire to climb mountains but behaviourists only consider the simplest. The explanation is also deterministic and allows Sylvia no free-will. Surely if Sylvia really wanted to she could stop climbing mountains!
Evaluation of the behaviourist approach The behaviourist approach is approaching its 100th birthday. It clearly provides an influential perspective on human and on animal behaviour. It offers a scientific method of explaining human behaviour, arising as it did, from dissatisfaction with the psychodynamic approach. Its ideas are testable since it only considers the observable aspects of human behaviour (stimuli and responses). In practical terms it has provided many useful applications. It is difficult to imagine a modern day school without rewards such as credits or stars for good behaviour, and punishments such as detentions and exclusions for poor behaviour. Similar methods, such as token economy, are used in prisons and psychiatric institutions. Guide and sniffer dogs are trained using operant conditioning, as are sea lions and dolphins in safari parks and zoos. Classical conditioning has been used to develop a variety of methods for treating phobias. As well as explaining behaviour, the approach can at times be used to predict behaviour… the true test of a scientific theory. However, the approach has its limitations: It fails to consider any biological factors in determining our behaviour, for example genes or brain chemistry, when it is clear from studies and drug treatments that these do play a part. Behaviourism is probably the most reductionist of all approaches. It takes very complex behaviours and attempts the simplest of all explanations; that they are due to associations or patterns of reinforcement. Hard behaviourists still refuse to accept the importance of cognitive factors such as memory, emotion and feelings in determining behaviour. Today most behaviourists do now recognise the relevance of such factors and cognitive behaviourists are increasingly common. Behaviourists are deterministic in that they believe we have little or no real control over our actions. To be fair of course, the other approaches we look at are also deterministic! Behaviourists believe we are simply the product of our environment. From an ethical point of view this may have its benefits since it suggests that a person should not be blamed for their abnormal behaviour. Whilst on ethical grounds, behaviourists, particularly the late BF Skinner, have been criticised for theories that can be used to control or shape people’s behaviour. Finally, the approach does struggle to explain novel behaviours. Operant conditioning for example, requires that a behaviour be performed before reinforcement or punishment can occur. Behaviourists get round this one by suggesting that what appear to be novel behaviours are simply combinations of previous behaviours.
Methods used by the behaviourist approach Behaviourists prefer the scientific method of studying behaviour. Their research tends to be carried out in laboratories where all variables can be very carefully controlled and manipulated. Total control of variables like this can allow for clear causal relationships to be established.
In addition all behaviours and variables must be very clearly defined or operationalised in advance. No messing about here with terms such as ‘emotion’ or ‘frustration’ for example. All such characteristics need to be defined in terms of observable characteristics. For example, Dollard et al (1939) defined ‘frustration’ as “when environmental conditions prevent access to an expected positive reinforcer.” Such definitions must avoid use of any concept of mental states or feelings. Accurate observations are essential to behaviourist methods. Since behaviourists believe that the same rules apply to both human and animal learning it is not unusual for research to be carried out on other species, particularly rats.
Applying to the Sylvia question Behaviourists prefer a scientific approach to studying behaviour so would prefer to conduct laboratory experiments wherever possible. No mention of thoughts or feelings during or after the climb would be sought, the research would centre on events and behaviour only since these can be observed and measured. Any variables measured or observed would be meticulously operationalised in advance allowing for objective measurement. So for example a scoring system may be produced to measure the precise reinforcement given to climbers in terms of feedback from others and compliments received. Experimentation allows for tight control of variables and allows cause and effect relationships to be determined. Behaviourists would want to look for a possible vicarious conditioning effect between watching others climb mountains and being inspired to do so yourself and the role of praise as a reinforcer. Similarly the reinforcing role of media portrayal of rock climbing may also be crucial and would be investigated. Research may also consider extinction and the effects of punishment caused by accidents or the deaths of others on rock climbing behaviour.
Evaluation of behaviourist methods Because of the scientific methods and tight control of variables, causal relationships can be established. Because research is so well controlled and planned precise replication is possible so the findings of research can be carefully checked allowing for greater reliability in theories. Such checking also means that all theories are objective and testable, allowing for falsification. However, the scientific method also has obvious disadvantages. Use of laboratory and other artificial settings means that research is low in ecological validity so findings are difficult to generalise to real life situations. As a result, research triggered by lab research often needs to be further investigated using more natural techniques in real life situations. Similarly use of animals also creates difficulty in generalising theories to humans. Humans have crucial differences such as use of language and socialisation that makes theories difficult to generalise across different species. Because of their preoccupation of only observable characteristics, many other crucial factors are missed during observation. No attempts are made to record participants emotional responses or their thoughts which might provide valuable insights into the reasons for a particular response.
The scientific approach has a number of advantages such as being able to isolate cause and effect through tight control of variables. In this case researchers would try to isolate factors that stimulate the desire to climb and record the effect this has on climbing behaviour. The methods used are objective and falsifiable so can be tested by others. However, being largely lab based they do lack ecological validity making it difficult for results to be generalised to real life climbing situations and to other people. A scientific appraisal of climbing for example may involve climbing walls that do not carry the same risk or glamour has a real mountain side. In seeking to isolate variables it is possible that crucial factors may be overlooked so only a narrow explanation of the behaviour is uncovered. |
